Rabbi Levi ben Gershom, known as Ralbag, was born around 1288 in Provence, in southern France. Throughout his life, Ralbag lived a several Provencal cities including Perpignan and Avignon. Sefer Yechusin reports that his father, Gershom, was a wise and scholarly man. This is also indicated by Sha’arei Tzion’s description of Ralbag (see quote below). According to many scholars, Gershom was none other than Rabbi Gershom ben Shlomo, author of an important philosophical work titled Sha’ar ha-Shamayim. In his commentary to Shemos (34:9) Ralbag cites his grandfather as “my master, my grandfather, Rabbi Levi ha-Kohen. This was likely Rabbi Levi ben Chayim, a prominent rabbinic scholar and philosopher who authored many works including a sefer titled Levayas Chen.

The Chida (in Shem ha-Gedolim) records that Ramban was Ralbag’s maternal grandfather. Although not mentioned explicitly, the Chida seems to be citing Sefer Yechusin. However, a close look at the wording of Sefer Yechusin yields a great deal of ambiguity about this matter. In addition, Ralbag never quotes or even mentions Ramban throughout his writings, a startling fact if Ralbag was indeed Ramban’s grandson. For these reasons, among others, some scholars question whether Ralbag was in fact Ramban’s grandson.

Milchamos Hashem

Ralbag is known as one of the greatest Jewish philosophers of the Medieval period; his philosophical work - Milchamos Hashem was published before he turned thirty. In this lengthy sefer, Ralbag explores the views of earlier philosophers and then states what he believes to be the truth regarding these matters. Some of the philosophical views contained within Milchamos Hashem were subject to the critique of later Rishonim, however, Ralbag’s descendant, Rashbatz (Rabbi Shimon ben Tzemach Duran) composed Levayas Chen, to defend Ralbag’s controversial philosophical views.

Commentary on Tanach

Ralbag is well-known for his acclaimed commentary on Tanach. One unique feature of this commentary are the תועליות or ethical and spiritual lessons learned which he wrote as a summary at the conclusion of a topic or story.

Other Works

In addition to Milchamos Hashem, Ralbag authored:

• A commentary of the writings of Aristotle

• ha-Hekeish ha-Yashar on logic

• books on health and medicine

• books on mathematics including trigonometry

• a book on astronomy

• Yesod Mishnah, an introduction to the Mishnah

• Mechokek Tzafon, on Aggadic passages in Bava Basra

• Commentaries on the Talmud

The Provencal rabbi and scholar Rabbi Yitzchak de Lattes describes Ralbag in his Sha’arei Tzion:

The Umayyad Caliphate and the Ascent of Cordoba

The Umayyad dynasty was the first powerful dynasty to rule the Muslim empire. Established in Damascus, Syria, in 661, the Umayyads were defeated nearly a century later, in 750, by the rivaling Abbasids. Most of the royal family was slain during the turmoil, but a young Umayyad prince named Abd al-Rahman I fled Syria and found refuge in Spain. With Abd al-Rahman’s conquest of Cordoba in March 756, the Umayyad Caliphate of Cordoba began its illustrious reign (756–1031). The Umayyad caliphs vied with their counterparts in the Middle East to become the cultural center of the Islamic Empire. To advance their cultural society, these rulers, beginning with Abd al-Rahman I (756– 788), generously patronized scholars, scientists, and poets who settled in their land. With the influx of such individuals, Cordoba emerged as the crown of Islamic Spain and boasted sophisticated centers of art, poetry, and science.

More specifically, under the rule of Abd al-Rahman III (912–961), a wise and adept monarch, Cordoba prospered greatly as a center of culture and commerce.

The Golden Age of Spanish Jewry

Under Umayyad rule, Spanish Jewry experienced outstanding growth and prosperity. During this “golden age,” the Jews of Spain were not merely tolerated religiously, but were invited to occupy positions of prestige, influence, and power. As mentioned above, Abd al-Rahman III, the caliph of Cordoba between 912–961, was solely focused on the cultural development of his state and disregarded any religious beliefs that stood in his way. It can thus be said that Abd al-Rahman III’s lax religious attitudes and ambitious economic and political goals ushered in what has been termed “the golden age of Spanish Jewry.” This rich period in Spanish-Jewish history began in the mid-900s with the rise of a remarkable Jewish courtier and ended approximately 200 years later, in 1148–49, when the Almohads, a fanatically religious group of Berbers, defeated their Muslim rulers and conquered North Africa and much of Spain (termed Andalusia).

Chisdai ibn Shaprut in the Royal Court

Abd al-Rahman’s lavish endowments attracted intellectuals of different faiths to his court in Cordoba. One such man was Abu Yussaf Chisdai ben Isaac ibn Shaprut, otherwise known as Chisdai ibn Shaprut. Chisdai’s father, Isaac ibn Shaprut, moved to Cordoba from Jaen in eastern Andalusia, probably to take advantage of the endowments offered by Abd al-Rahman. Isaac ibn Shaprut, a prominent Jewish leader, was appointed Nasi (head of the Jewish community) of Cordoba. His fantastic wealth, combined with his piety, led him to a career of philanthropic deeds. Isaac ibn Shaprut generously supported Torah scholars and donated funds to construct a shul in Cordoba. On the political end, Isaac ibn Shaprut was a confidant of the caliph and maintained close ties with state officials.

Born in 915 in Cordoba, Chisdai grew up in a home that was whole- heartedly dedicated to Jewish affairs in Cordoba and beyond. Isaac provided his young son with a broad education, hiring tutors to teach him Chumash, Mishnah, and Gemara, as well as the disciplines of medicine, poetry, and etymology. As a young man, Chisdai mastered Hebrew, Arabic, and Latin, the last of which was to become a vital asset in his future career as an advisor and ambassador of the state.

Chisdai’s brilliance and medical expertise — particularly his discovery of a cure for poisoning — won him favor in the eyes of Abd al-Rahman III. Chisdai was initially appointed as a physician in the king’s royal court, but, once his economic aptitude was recognized, he was promoted to manage the state’s finances, trade, and taxation. In addition, Chisdai, a master of several languages, had outstanding diplomatic skills and played a significant role in the state’s foreign affairs. On several occasions, Chisdai was sent as an ambassador to negotiate the terms of various enterprises and pacts with other European and Middle Eastern powers. These diplomatic tasks put Chisdai in contact with distant lands and he utilized the opportunities to inquire about the state of Jewish life in these far-flung places. Occasionally, Chisdai even used his political influence to alleviate the suffering of Jews in various kingdoms.

Chisdai ibn Shaprut’s diplomatic ingenuity and economic expertise were both well-recognized and indispensable to the state of Cordoba, and Abd al-Rahman’s son and successor, Al Hakam II, likewise employed Chisdai in his royal court. When Al Hakam II died in 976, his eleven- year-old son, Hisham II, succeeded him and enjoyed Chisdai’s services until the latter’s death in 990.

Hisham II’s ascent to the throne at the young age of eleven led to the collapse of the Umayyad caliphate and fundamentally initiated the Christian reconquest (Reconquista) of Spain. Due to Hisham’s young age, a fervent Islamic advisor named ibn Abi Amir effectively managed the empire’s affairs. As a fanatically religious Muslim, ibn Abi Amir neglected the single-minded goal of maintaining Cordoba’s status as the leading cultural center of the Islamic world and instead shifted his attention to fighting the Christians in the north. To strengthen his army, ibn Abi Amir imported Berber warriors from North Africa, but the great influx of Berbers led to a civil war that lasted from 1008 to 1031. Eventually, the Umayyad caliphate crumbled, and in its place, thirty-nine city-states emerged, further diminishing Muslim control of the region. The largest of these city-states were Malaga, Seville, Granada, Cordoba, Toledo, Valencia, and Saragossa.

Chisdai ibn Shaprut and Joseph, King of the Khazars

Around 960, Chisdai ibn Shaprut’s career as an ambassador led him to the discovery of the Khazars — a central Asian kingdom that had con- verted to Judaism more than two centuries earlier, in 740. After expend- ing much effort, Chisdai managed to establish contact with Joseph, the last king of the Khazars. The letters of correspondence between Chisdai ibn Shaprut and Joseph, King of the Khazars, that were discovered in the 16th century by Yitzchak Akrish establish the credibility of the story of the Khazars.

Chisdai ibn Shaprut: The Nasi of Cordoba

Like his father Isaac, Chisdai ibn Shaprut’s prestigious position in the royal court of Abd al-Rahman and his successors occupied only part of his time and energy, and he, too, was appointed Nasi of Cordoba. Upon Isaac’s death, Chisdai inherited his father’s estate, but he also amassed his own wealth through various financial enterprises. Chisdai also inherited his father’s philanthropic nature and viewed his affluence as a means to advance and support Torah study. He patronized scholars and poets across Andalusia and beyond. One renowned scholar, poet, and grammarian—Menachem ben Saruk of Tortosa—had previously served his father, Isaac, and now returned to Cordoba as Chisdai’s personal scribe. Menachem ben Saruk penned the inscription that was engraved on the memorial wall of the shul in Cordoba that Chisdai built, and composed elegies upon the death of Chisdai’s parents. Chisdai deeply admired Menachem, and the two enjoyed a close friendship until their ties were sadly severed.

As Nasi of Cordoba, one of Chisdai’s monumental projects was the establishment of a yeshiva, which he personally financed. A pious scholar named Rebbi Nosson initially headed the yeshiva, but resigned when he recognized the eminent stature of the newly arrived Italian Gaon, Rebbi Moshe ben Chanoch. Chisdai’s charitable deeds extended beyond the walls of the yeshiva he founded. He acquired copies of the Talmud Bavli and important Geonic works from Bavel and freely distributed them to Spanish scholars in need. Chisdai’s efforts were met with great success, and Cordoba was transformed from a modest Jewish community into a thriving Torah center that was home to many remarkable Torah scholars and the most prominent yeshiva in Andalusia at the time.

Menachem’s Machberes and Dunash ben Labrat’s Critique

Encouraged and patronized by Chisdai ibn Shaprut, Menachem ben Saruk compiled his Machberes (ca. 955), a dictionary of the Hebrew language that also explained the rules of Hebrew grammar. Another prodigious grammarian who settled in Cordoba upon Chisdai ibn Shaprut’s invitation was Dunash ben Labrat. Upon analyzing Menachem’s Machberes, Dunash reacted with harsh criticism. He penned a pamphlet that pointed to over 100 instances where he felt Menachem had erred grievously and sent it to Chisdai. This ultimately led to Menachem’s departure from Cordoba.

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In Prague and Kalisz

Rabbi Eliyahu Shapira was born in Prague in 1660 into an illustrious rabbinic family; his father, Rabbi Binyamin Wolff Shapira was a prominent rabbi in the Prague Jewish Court. As a young child, Rabbi Eliyahu studied with his father – Rabbi Binyamin Wolff, and his venerated grandfather - Rabbi Ahron Yechiel Shapira. In his early teens, Rabbi Eliyahu travelled to Poland where he continued his studies under one of the foremost halachic figures of the generation, Rabbi Avraham Abli of Kalisz, author of the classic halachic work Magen Avraham. In Rabbi Eliyahu’s writings he refers to Rabbi Avraham of Kalisz as “the master of my youth”. Although Rabbi Eliyahu considered himself a disciple of Rabbi Avraham, he argues with him on occasion.

Rabbinate in Tiktin, Kalin, and Prague

Upon his return from Kalisz, Rabbi Eliyahu married the daughter of Rabbi Ezriel Preimus, a wealthy and prominent member of the Prague Jewish community. After their marriage the couple settled briefly in the Preimus home. Several years later, Rabbi Eliyahu was elected to the rabbinate in Tiktin (Tykocin), and afterwards served as rabbi in Kalin (Kalina).

By 1689, Rabbi Eliyahu had returned to Prague where he began printing his halachic writings. Despite being just thirty years-old, Rabbi Eliyahu was widely respected as a great rabbi, rosh yeshiva, and posek. Under his leadership, the yeshiva in Prague flourished and students from across Europe atteneded his Talmudic lectures. The Chida (Devarim Achadim, sermon #32) refers to Rabbi Eliyahu Shapira as ׳גדול הדור האחרון׳. Rabbi Eliyahu also served as the communal darshan and delivered weekly sermons each Shabbos. These sermons were transcribed but were destroyed in a fire which ravaged Prague.

Author of Halachic Classics, Elyah Rabbah and Elya Zuta

Those who study halachah are certainly familiar with Rabbi Eliyahu’s two classic works on the Orach Chayim section of Shulchan Aruch: Elyah Rabbah and Elyah Zuta.

There is an interesting backstory as to how these two works evolved. In his introduction to Elyah Zuta on Orach Chayim, Rabbi Shapira writes that he initially wrote a commentary on Yoreh Deyah titled Elyah Rabbah but, as he prepared the manuscript for print, he received a heavenly message to first publish a work on Orach Chayim, the first section of Shulchan Aruch (which contains the halachic subjects pertaining to daily Jewish life). Rabbi Shapira heeded the Divine instruction and decided to compile his halachic discussions on Orach Chayim as a commentary on the Levush (authored by Rabbi Mordechai Yaffe, 1530-1612) which in the 17^th century was a widely studied text. Rabbi Shapira titled this work Elyah Zuta (the small Elyah), presumably because he considered it less intricate than his Elyah Rabbah on the complex subjects found in Yoreh Deyah. It thus emerges that the work on Yoreh Deyah which was written as a commentary on the Shulchan Aruch itself was titled Elyah Rabbah while the work on Orach Chayim which was written as a commentary to the Levush was titled Elyah Zuta.

Accordingly, it is perplexing how the Elyah Rabbah on Orach Chaim, a most essential and valued commentary, came to be written and published. An understanding of the publication process of Rabbi Shapira’s works both during and after his lifetime, provides us with the answer to our question.

Elyah Zuta on Orach Chaim was first printed in Prague in 1689, when Rabbi Shapira was just twenty-nine and then again in 1701. His commentary titled Elyah Rabbah on Yoreh Deyah should have been brought to the printing press shortly thereafter, but for reasons unknown it was never printed. The manuscript copy of Elyah Rabbah on Yoreh Deyah, along with many other manuscripts including sermons, responsa, and a commentary on the Tur and Tanach, were destroyed in a fire that ravaged Prague in 1754, over forty years after Rabbi Shapira’s demise. Miraculously, the first page of the manuscript survived the flames and is printed alongside the Levush on Yoreh Deyah.

Not to be confused with the above-mentioned Elyah Rabbah on Yoreh Deyah, an anonymous student of Rabbi Shapira published his master’s commentary on Orach Chayim also titled Elyah Rabbah. The student who printed this work describes its purpose based on testimony directly from Rabbi Shapira himself. Although Rabbi Shapira outlived his teacher Rabbi Avraham of Kalisz (author of Magen Avraham) whose commentary is printed alongside most editions of Shulchan Aruch Orach Chayim, nonetheless Rabbi Shapira’s writings were published before the Magen Avraham. When Rabbi Shapira later realized that much of what he wrote was in agreement with the Magen Avraham, he edited his manuscript and in brackets added the words Magen Avraham whenever they were in agreement. In addition, wherever Rabbi Shapira disagreed with the view of his master he mentions his own position. These objectives necessitated a new commentary on the Levush Orach Chayim titled Elyah Rabbah. It remains unclear if Rabbi Shapira himself titled this second edition of his work Elyah Rabbah, or if his student chose the title. The Elyah Rabbah on Orach Chayim was first printed forty-five years after the author’s death, in 1757 in Sulzbach, Germany.

Untimely Death

Rabbi Eliyahu Shapira tragically perished in the spring of 1712, at the peak of the Great Northern War plague, a pandemic which devastated a large part of Europe, in Prague alone 3,441 Jews died. Rabbi Shapira was just fifty-two years old and is buried in the Old Jewish Cemetery in Prague.

Rabbi Avraham Botton was born in Salonica in 1545. As a young student, Rabbi Avraham studied under the great Sephardic Talmudist and Halachist, Rabbi Shmuel de Modena, known as the Maharashdam - מהרשד״ם.

Rabbi Avraham Botton and his chavrusa Rabbi Mordechai Kali studied the Rambam’s Mishneh Torah in great depth, and the explanations, resolutions, and chiddushim which they came up with formed the basis for Rabbi Avraham’s renowned work, Lechem Mishneh. Rabbi Avraham’s Lechem Mishneh is considered one of the most remarkable commentaries on the Mishneh Torah; in fact Rabbi Shlomo of Chelm (author of Merkeves ha-Mishneh) equates the Lechem Mishneh’s elucidation of the Mishneh Torah to the Maharsha’s profound commentary on the Gemara, Rashi, and Tosfos!

During the course of his compilation of Lechem Mishneh, the author became aware that Rabbi Yosef Karo, the preeminent Torah leader of the generation had just completed and published his Kesef Mishneh. When a copy of the Kesef Mishneh arrived in Salonica, Rabbi Avraham wrote the following (Hilchos tefillah, 11:15):

Aside from his Lechem Mishneh, Rabbi Avraham Botton wrote responsa which were collected and published under the title Lechem Rav. Rabbi Avraham also wrote chiddushim on the Talmud; those on Bava Kama were published in a sefer titled מהררי נמרים by Avraham Akra in Venice in 1599.

Tragically, Rabbi Avraham de Botton perished in a plague in Salonica in 1588, he was just forty-three years old. In his Koreh ha-Doros, Rabbi Dovid Conforte records that which he heard from the elders: “Rabbi Avraham passed away on a Friday, and the townspeople hurried to bury him before sunset when Shabbos would begin. As the townspeople left the cemetery, they realized that the sun had already set and were distraught that they had violated Shabbos. Suddenly, a miraculous event occurred and the sun reappeared in the horizon, demonstrating that Shabbos had not yet begun.

From Prague, Rabbi Katzenellenbogen travelled to Padua, Italy, to learn in the yeshiva of Rabbi Yehuda Mintz. Known as the Mahari Mintz, Rabbi Yehudah Mintz was chief rabbi of Padua for 47 years, and enjoyed tremendous longevity, passing away at the age of 103. Rabbi Mintz was a major talmid chacham^[2] who founded his yeshiva in Padua with the German style of pilpul. Additionally, the nearby University of Padua was one of the only universities at the time that accepted Jews, making Padua an attractive location for Jews.

Rabbi Katzenellenbogen married Chana Mintz, the daughter of Rabbi Avraham (who later succeeded his father as chief rabbi) and granddaughter of Rabbi Yehuda Mintz. The Maharam succeeded his father-in-law as chief rabbi in 1525, and became a well known rabbinic figure. He corresponded with notable gedolim like Rabbi Ovadia Sforno, Rabbi Moshe Alashkar^[3], and his cousins the Rema^[4] and Maharshal^[5].

The Maharam of Padua is perhaps best known for his role in a major printing debate in the year 1550. He wished to publish an edition of the Rambam with his own commentary, and after being rejected by the first publisher he approached, he agreed to terms with another local publisher, Alvise Bragadin. Not long after his new edition hit the market, a nearly identical version began to be distributed, published by none other than Marc Antonio Justinian, the publisher who had rejected the Maharam in the first place. Not only that, but it was conveniently being sold for one gold coin less than the Bragadin edition!

The Maharam’s printing arrangement included a significant investment of his own money, and with this competition, the Maharam was worried about losing his investment. He decided to appeal to a prominent Rabbi in Krakow - his 20 year old cousin, Rabbi Moshe Isserles. The Rema wrote a landmark responsum (#10 in Shailos u’Teshuvos Rema) in response, analyzing whether non Jews can be subject to Jewish business law. He also issued a cherem on anyone who buys the cheaper edition of the Rambam before all of the Maharam’s stock is sold out. The situation escalated with the publisher Justinian issuing a response of his own, and each printer accusing the other of printing heresy and content objectionable to the church. Before long Pope Julius III got wind of the situation, and appointed a council of cardinals to investigate. Unsurprisingly, in August 1553 the council emerged with a ruling that all copies of Talmud must be surrendered within eight days, along with a ten year ban on Hebrew printing in Venice. On Rosh Hashanah of that year (September 9, 1553), the burning took place in Campo di Fiori Square in Rome, a few blocks from the Vatican. Today that area is a popular market in the old city of Rome, where there is a plaque commemorating this event.

The effects of the Talmud burning were long lasting and extremely detrimental. The Maharam himself said that he is not to be relied on for p’sak since the “ma’ayan ha-Talmud” was no longer at his disposal (Shailos u’Teshuvos She’eris Yosef, end of siman 1). Rabbi Dr. Edward Reichman records that in Abraham Portaleone’s Shiltei ha-Giborim (on Tefillah and the Temple service) published around 1607, he makes multiple references to lack of accessibility to volumes of the Talmud. At one point (end of chapter 32, discussing the Lechem HaPanim) he writes: “Maybe someplace in the Gemara this is discussed, but I don’t know. As a result of the known decree [preventing access to the Talmud] I have not been able to properly ascertain this.”

As for the Maharam’s scholarship, the Shailos u’Teshuvos Mahari Mintz that exist today were actually published by the Maharam in 1553, who included his own teshuvos as well^[6]. In addition to his commentary on the Rambam, he also wrote comments on the Tur and Yalkut Shimoni. The Maharam Padua passed away at age 92 in 1565. His Yahrzeit is the 10th of Shevat.

Rabbi Meir Katznellenbogen was succeeded in Padua by his son, Rabbi Shlomo Yehuda Katzenellenbogen, who later became av beis din in Venice. Rabbi Shlomo Yehuda authored D’rashos Mahari Mintz, a compilation of 12 d’rashos modeled after the D’rashos ha-Ran. Rabbi Shlomo Yehuda’s grandson was the famed Saul Wahl Katzenellenbogen, King of Poland for a day.

About the author

Yaakov Feldman is currently a student in Yeshivat Kerem B’Yavneh, and will be attending Yeshiva University in the Fall. He is the creator of theacharonim.com, an interactive map visualizing the geographic networks, correspondences, and intellectual lineages of Acharonim across early modern Europe and beyond. He can be reached at theacharonim@gmail.com

Click here to learn more about the Maharam of Padua, and over 250 other Achronim, on theacharonim.com

^[1] Katzenellenbogen is the name of a town in western Germany. Either the Maharam himself or his father Rabbi Yitzchak spent significant enough time there for it to be taken as their last name.

^[2] The Re’eim, Rabbi Eliyahu Mizrachi, author of Sefer Mizrachi on Rashi, writes (teshuva 56) that the Mahari’s chachmah is “gedolah ad meod” and calls him a malach hashem “asher ein koach ba’einayim lir’oso”.

^[3] Shailos u’Teshuvos Maharam Alashkar, simanim 99, 111, 114.

^[4] See Shailos u’Teshuvos Rema, simanim 48, 51, 52, 55, 89, 90.

^[5] Shailos u’Teshuvos Maharshal, siman 28.

^[6] Not to be confused with the Drashos Mahari Mintz, the sermons of the Maharam’s son Rabbi Shmuel Yehuda Katzenellenbogen.

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Early Years in Ukraine

Rabbi Nosson of Hanover was born in the 1620s in Ostroh, Ukraine to parents that emigrated from Hanover, Germany to Ukraine at the turn of the 17th century. At the time, Ostroh, in addition to being a large center of commerce, had a large and prosperous Jewish community with a prominent yeshiva. During Rabbi Nosson’s early years, the yeshiva was still under the leadership of the famed Maharsha (Rabbi Shmuel Eidels), who passed away in 1631. In addition to studying the Talmud and its commentaries, Rabbi Nosson of Hanover became intrigued by the study of Kabbalah and affiliated himself with the circle of Kabbalists in Ostroh.

The Khmelnytsky Massacres

Rabbi Nosson married the daughter of Rabbi Avraham of Zaslaw and settled there after his marriage. When the Khmelnytsky Massacres began in 1648, most of the Jews of Zaslaw were slaughtered but Rabbi Nosson managed to flee, although the details of his escape are not known.

In Italy

Rabbi Nosson fled west and after spending time in Germany and Holland, he settled in Italy. In 1652 Rabbi Nosson published his Yavein Metzulah in Venice and a year later he was appointed as rabbi of Livorno. In Livorno, Rabbi Nosson spent time studying in the private beis midrash funded by a physician named David Valensin and developed a relationship with Rabbi Chayim ha-Kohen of Aleppo, a student of the great Kabbalist Rabbi Chayim Vital. After some time, Rabbi Nosson returned to Venice where he studied Kabbalah with the great Italian Kabbalists of that time, including the preeminent sage, Rabbi Moshe Zacuto (Ramaz).

Rabbi Nosson subsequently moved to Wallachia (in modern-day Romania) and then to Ungarisch-Brod in Moravia (on the eastern end of modern-day Czechia). Although Rabbi Nosson survived the Khmelnytsky Massacres, he was murdered during the Great Turkish War in 1683 when Turkish soldiers raided Ungarisch-Brod and killed many of its residents.

Rabbi Nosson’s Writings

• Yavein Metzulah - the most important chronicle depicting the catastrophic events of the Khmelnytsky Massacres, also known as Tach v’Tat. Yavein Metzulah’s prominence is evidenced by the numerous times it was printed and the fact that it was translated into several different languages including French, German, Polish, Russian, Yiddish, and English.

• Safah Berurah - a dictionary in four languages: Hebrew, German, Italian, and Latin intended to help refugees like himself.

• Sha’arei Tzion - an anthology of tefillos.

• Neta Sha’shuim - a collection of sermons that Rabbi Nosson delivered during his career as a rabbi and darshan.

In addition, Rabbi Nosson of Hanover authored several works on Kabbalah which have not been published.

Rabbi Nosson Nota (ben Shlomo) Shapiro was born in 1585 into one of the most prominent rabbinic families in Europe. His grandfather, Rabbi Nosson Shapiro of Hrodna (Grodno), was an illustrious rabbi and author of several important sefarim which were discussed in an earlier post (see https://nossonwiggins.substack.com/p/birchas-hamazon-the-original-bencher).

Although it is not known who Rabbi Shapiro’s teachers were, from a young age he was recognized as a brilliant student with a phenomenal memory. Rabbi Shapiro mastered the Talmud and poskim (halachic authorities) by heart, and as his son, Rabbi Shlomo Shapiro, writes, when his father would deliver a Talmudic lecture to his students, he would recite the Gemara, Rashi, Tosfos, Rif and Tur by heart! So great was Rabbi Shapiro’s erudition that printers in Sudilkov attributed a halachic work titled Yishmach Yisrael, (written by Rabbi Yisrael Shmuel Kalihari, a contemporary of Rabbi Shapiro in Cracow) to the Megaleh Amukos.

Rabbi Shapiro married the daughter of Rabbi Moshe Yaklish, who was a prosperous communal leader in Cracow. Rabbi Moshe Yaklish established a private beis midrash for his son-in-law to study and deliver shiurim. This beis midrash was called Al Ha-givhah (on the hill) by the people of Cracow.

From 1617, Rabbi Shapiro served as the rabbi and rosh yeshiva of Cracow. There he taught many students, among them Rabbi Shabsi Kohen, author of Sifsei Kohen (Shach).

Although Rabbi Shapiro was one of the greatest Talmudic scholars of his day in Poland, he is more prominently known as a Kabbalist and a major disseminator of the Arizal’s Kabbalah.

Rabbi Shapiro wrote many works, most of which have not been published. His published works include Chiddushei Anshei Sheim on the Rif and Megaleh Amukos on Chumash. Megaleh Amukos is actually the title of two separate works, one a commentary on Chumash, and the other a treatise which expounds the word Va’eschanan in 252 different ways.

One of Rabbi Avraham’s works, Chosem Tachnit, is unique in the fact that it was the first work devoted to explaining שמות נרדפים - synonyms, in Lashon Hakodesh. Other Rishonim and early Grammarians such as Menachem ben Saruk (in Sefer Machberes), the Rambam (in Moreh Nevuchim), and the Radak (in Sefer Shorashim) only discuss synonyms on occasion but never in a systematic and comprehensive manner.

The fundamental principle upon which Rabbi Avraham bases his work is that whenever synonyms appear one after the other in a pasuk, the second word has a greater or stronger implication than the first:

Rabbi Avraham of Béziers explains the difference between the terms ‘Yehudi’ and ‘Ivri’:

The Pesach Seder is traditionally introduced by chanting the ‘Order of the Seder’, known as the סימני הסדר.

In this article, we will explore who composed this song.

The version printed in most haggados reads as follows:

קדש, ורחץ, כרפס, יחץ, מגיד, רחצה, מוציא, מצה, מרור, כורך, שלחן עורך, צפון, ברך, הלל, נרצה

Rabbi Menachem Kasher (Torah Shleimah, Haggadah shel Pesach, p. 77) notes that some scholars attribute this text to none other than Rashi. On the other hand, one of the Maharil’s students reports that one of the French ba’alei Tosfos, Rabbi Shmuel of Falaise, authored this version. A slightly different version is recorded in Machzor Vitry and Sefer ha-Pardes (written by Rashi’s students).

It is noteworthy that several other Ashkenazic Rishonim composed their own versions of ‘The Order of the Seder’ which differ somewhat from the commonly recited text. Among them are prominent Rishonim such as Maharam of Rothenburg and Rabbi Yisrael Isserlein, author of Terumas ha-Deshen.

Sephardic Rishonim in Spain composed their own versions of the ‘Order of the Seder’ as well. Rabbi Dovid Avudraham (ch. 21, #54) cites six versions in addition to the standard one mentioned above. One of them reads as follows:

Below is the ‘Order of the Seder’ which Rabbi Yitzchak ben Shlomo ibn Al-achdav (ca. 1350-1430) composed in Spain in the 14th century.

While some of these variant texts are approximately the same length as the standard version, others are much longer and more detailed, such as the one mentioned in Shailos u’Teshuvos Maharshal (#88) and featured below. For more about these variant נוסחאות and meaning behind them, see Rabbi Kasher’s Haggadah shel Pesach, ch. 16, pp. 77-82 and Shailos u’Teshuvos Maharshal, #88.

When the Yeshiva of Lublin is mentioned, we tend to think of Rabbi Meir Shapiro and his Yeshivas Chachmei Lublin in the early 20th century. In this post, we will travel back several hundred years to explore the original founder of the Lublin Yeshiva.

A Family of Prosperous Bankers

Rabbi Shalom Shachna of Lublin, commonly known as “the Rebbi, Reb Shachna”, was born into a prominent and wealthy Polish family around 1490. His father, Yosef (Yoska), and grandfather, Shachna of Lvov (Lemberg), were prosperous merchants, international traders, bankers, and tax agents for the Crown of Poland. Polish records indicate that Shachna of Lvov was a highly influential individual and had a personal relationship with Casimir IV, king of Poland. After Shachna’s death, Yosef took over his father’s financial enterprises. In 1484, Yosef was appointed as the private banker and financial advisor of King Casimir IV Jagiellon, and he was thus entitled to collect taxes from several major regions in the Polish Kingdom. Yosef was one of the wealthiest Jews in eastern Poland until jealous competitors convinced the king to reduce his authority. Soon thereafter, Yosef and his wife Golda moved from Lvov to Lublin together with their two sons – Shachna and Pesach – and a daughter. Shortly after their move to Lublin, Yosef fell deathly ill; he passed away in 1507 when Shachna was around seventeen years old.

Rabbi Shachna: A Student in Posen and Cracow

In his youth Rabbi Shachna studied Torah in Posen, probably under Rebbi Mendel Frank (Varnek). Around 1510, Rebbi Shachna travelled to Cracow where spent the next ten years studying in the illustrious yeshiva of Rabbi Yakov Pollak.

Rabbi Dovid Ganz records in his Tzemach Dovid (Part I, 5317):

Lublin: Rosh Yeshiva and Av Beis Din

Around 1522, Rabbi Shachna returned to Lublin where he was appointed rosh yeshiva and av beis din. He occupied these positions for nearly 36 years until his death in 1588. After Rabbi Yakov Pollak left Cracow in 1522 its yeshiva declined and Rabbi Shachna’s yeshiva in Lublin emerged as the most prominent Torah center in Poland. As such, Rabbi Moshe Isereles, a native of Cracow, travelled to Lublin to study in Rabbi Shachna’s yeshiva. Rabbi Shachna’s yeshiva in Lublin attracted students from across Poland and beyond. Such are the words of his son-in-law and student - the Rema: “All the great rabbis of this land are his students”. It seems that Rabbi Shachna, who was exceedingly wealthy, supported his own yeshiva.

Chief Rabbi of Little Poland

On December 12, 1541 Rabbi Shachna (together with Rabbi Moshe Fischel) was appointed chief rabbi over Little Poland by the king of Poland – Sigismund I. In this capacity, Rabbi Shachna’s primary duties were to mediate between the authorities and the Jewish kehillos and to ensure the timely collection of taxes. they were also given exclusive rights to judge all halachic matters.

Rabbi Shachna’s Students

Rabbi Shachna’s illustrious students include: Rabbi Moshe Iserles (the Rema), Rabbi Chaim ben Betzalel (a brother of the Maharal of Prague), Rabbi Moshe Halperin, author of Zichron Moshe, Rabbi Lemel of Lublin, Rabbi Shlomo “Rabbi Leibush”, (known as Maharshal II), Rabbi Zecharyah Mandel (known as Zecharyah Hanavi).

Rabbi Shachna’s Writings

Like his master – Rabbi Yakov Pollak, Rabbi Shachna deliberately did not write any sefarim. However, two of his responsa regarding a chassan sending סבלנות (gifts prior to a marriage) to his kallah are extant. Additionally, Rebbi Shachna’s students recorded some of his p’sakim and chiddushim.

The Printing of the Lublin Talmud

Beginning in 1558 (and lasting until 1576) Jewish printers in Lublin began printing volumes of the Talmud Bavli. Rabbi Shachna, who died in that year, supported this important endeavor. Moreover, that which the printers wrote on the sha’ar blatt: “proofread letter by letter from the manuscript of the genius our master Rabbi Shalom of blessed memory” almost certainly refers to Rabbi Shalom Shachna of Lublin.

Rabbi Shachna’s Death

Rabbi Shachna passed away on Rosh Chodesh Kisleiv, 1588, in Lublin. In a responsum, Rabbi Yisrael bemoans his father’s death:

Megillas Esther records the events of the Purim miracle in a unique way. With Divine inspiration, Mordechai and Esther composed a megillah for Jews to read each year to commemorate the hidden miracles that occurred in Persia when Haman sought to annihilate the Jews in the kingdom of Achashveirosh, king of Persia.

However, by no means was Megillas Esther intended to be a complete historical account of the events that took place. As such, we are left with a great number of questions. Many of these questions probably cannot be answered, yet there are some important details scattered throughout Rabbinic sources which may provide answers or a least clues to some of these questions.

One of the questions that the curious reader of the megillah is left with is what happened to Mordechai and Esther after the Purim miracle? Did they remain in Persia for the remainder of their lives? Or did they return to Eretz Yisrael and merit to see the completion of the Second Beis Hamikdash?

The Talmud (Menachos 84b-85a) when discussing the subject of the Korban ha-Omer (which was offered on the 16th day of Nissan) mentions a Temple administrator by the name of Mordechia1. It is clear from the braysa, that this administrator lived during the Hasmonean Dynasty, more than 200 years after the events of the Purim story. Rashi identifies this Mordechai as none other than Mordechai Hatzadik who lived in days of King Achashveirosh. Accordingly, Mordechai merited an exceedingly long life and lived through the entire Chanukah story as well! This view is cited in Sefer Yuchsin (Ma’amar Rishon) and Seder ha-Doros (Seder Yemos Olam, 3404).

Tosfos reject the possibility that Mordechai lived such a long life and maintain that the Mordechia mentioned in the braysa was someone else. However, Rabbi Yakov Emden and Rabbi Meshulam Dovid HaLevi Soloveitchik bring support for the view of Rashi that Mordechia Hatzadik lived from the end of the First Beis Hamikdash period until well into the second, a life of more than 400 years!

Rabbi Yosef Yuspa Nördlinger Hahn served as a dayyan (rabbinic judge) on the Frankfurt beis din and shared a warm relationship with the preeminent Torah scholar, Kabbalist and leader of German Jewry Rabbi Yeshayah Horowitz, author of Shelah. Rabbi Hahn’s Yosef Ometz1 is a collection of German minhagim and laws. He also wrote haga’os on the Shulchan Aruch.

His grandson, Rabbi Yosef Yuspa Kashman also authored a work on German laws and customs titled Noheig K’tzon Yosef.

The Fettmilch Attack on the Frankfurt Jewish Quarter & the Expulsion of the Jews from Frankfurt

In August of 1614, Vincent Fettmilch, a grocer and baker and a member of the reformed Calvinist group, led an attack on Frankfurt’s Jewish Quarter, whose residents numbered nearly 2,000 people. Fettmilch’s mob forced the Jews out of their homes into a nearby Jewish cemetery and ransacked their homes and shuls. A number of sifrei Torah and Hebrew books were burned in this tragic looting.

The next day, instead of choosing to slaughter the entire Jewish population, Fettmilch ordered their expulsion from Frankfurt. During this difficult time Rabbi Hahn encouraged his brethren to remain faithful and instituted a special chaburah that dedicated themselves to the study of mussar. The expulsion order was promulgated on the 26th day of Elul, 1614, and as Rabbi Hahn records (Yosef Ometz, #953) on the 27th of Elul they were expelled from the city. To remember this day, the Jews of Frankfurt would fast on the 27th day of Elul each year.

The Catholic authorities eventually restored order. Matthias, the Holy Roman Emperor, declared Fettmilch and his followers heretics and the group was arrested and imprisoned. In February, 1616, a year and a half after the attack on the ghetto, Fettmilch and several of his accomplices were executed; the heads of Fettmilch and several others were placed on spikes on top of one of the city’s towers, while his house was razed to the ground. On the same day, the 20th day of the first Adar, the Jewish population was allowed to return to Frankfurt, accompanied by Rabbi Yosef Yuspa Nördlinger Hahn. As Rabbi Hahn records (Yosef Ometz, #1107, 1109), despite their fears that they would be assaulted upon their return to Frankfurt, the Jews were received by a large military parade and warmly welcomed back. Accordingly, that day, the 20th of Adar was established as a day of festivity and joy. It was called Purim Vincent by the Jews of Frankfurt.

The Astronomer

In 1473, at the age of twenty-one, Rabbi Avraham Zacut composed his famed solar declination tables titled Almanach Perpetuum Coelestium Montium - The Perpetual Almanac of the Heavenly Bodies. These tables, which were original written in Hebrew under the titled ha-Chibbur ha-Gadol, were immediately translated into Spanish, Latin, and Arabic and were used by the Spanish explorers of the 15th century to navigate their positions at sea. Rabbi Zacut forged a relationship with Christopher Columbus and gave him a copy of his tables prior to his famed expedition across the Atlantic.

Rabbi Zacut’s renown as an astronomer earned him the position of Professor of Astronomy at the University of Salamanca, and later at Saragossa. Despite his prominence and prestige among monarchs and influential academics, when the Jews were expelled from Spain in 1492, Rabbi Zacut and his family were forced to flee their homeland.

Initially, Rabbi Zacut settled in Portugal where he was appointed Royal Astronomer in the court of King Joao II. There, he advised another great explorer, Vasco da Gama, before his voyage to India in 1497.

In Portugal, Rabbi Zacut perfected his model of a copper astrolabe, a tool that measures the altitude of celestial bodies throughout the day and night. This model was designed to be used on ships, and together with his solar tables, enabled ship captains to accurately calculate their positions while navigating at sea.

The Historian: Sefer Yechusin

In 1497, Portugal expelled the Jews from its borders, sending Rabbi Zacut and his family into exile once again. This time they crossed the Mediterranean and, after twice being captured by pirates, they finally reached the shores of northern Africa and settled in Tunisia. During these years, Rabbi Zacut completed his Sefer Yechusin, an important work on Jewish history. In the introduction he argues for the importance of having a basic knowledge of time and place of the Sages of the Mishnah and Talmud. Although, as the author submits, Sefer Yechusin was written during a difficult period of exile (and therefore contains errors) it is nonetheless considered an important work on the subject of Jewish history and the lives of the Tannaim and Amoraim.

Rabbi Yissachar (ben Mordechai) ibn Susan was born around 1510 in Fez, Morocco where he studied with his father who was a prominent Torah scholar. Around 1530, he emigrated to Eretz Yisrael where he studied in Yerushalayim under the preeminent sage, Rabbi Levi ibn Chaviv. Some time later, Rabbi Susan travelled to Turkey and Greece where he spent several years in different cities. While in Salonica, he was encouraged by the locals to compile his calendrical work titled Tikkun Yissachar. Quoted by Magen Avraham (O.C. 131:16), Tikkun Yissachar is (probably) the earliest source that mentions the minhag to eat fruit on Tu B’Shvat. Rabbi Susan later returned to Eretz Yisrael and settled in Tzfas where he served as a rabbinic leader together with the great Torah giants of the Golden Era of Tzfas such as the Arizal and Rabbi Yosef Karo.

Little is known about the Polish born gaon, Rabbi Naftali who published one of the first comprehensive bentchers, titled Birchas Hamazon in Venice in 1603. What is known is that his father, Rabbi Dovid Zecharyah Mandel, was a prominent rosh yeshiva and av beis din in several communities , and his brother, Rabbi Chayim Feival, was a son-in-law of Rabbi Yeshaya Horowitz (author of the Shelah ha-Kadosh).

Birchas Hamazon

Birchas Hamazon is a remarkably unique work in the sense that it was one of the first comprehensive bentchers to be published. The work is comprised of the following parts:

• Rabbi Naftali first and foremost verified the precise and accurate text of birchas hamazon adapted from the texts of his father, Rabbi Nosson Nota Shapira of Hrodna, and Rabbi Shabsi Sofer of Przemyśl.

• Rabbi Naftali included a commentary on birchas hamazon authored by Rabbi Nosson Nota Shapira.

• Zemiros composed by Rabbi Shlomo Luria (Maharshal)

• Laws, explanations, and tikkunim relevant to eating a bread meal.

• A concise version of birchas hamazon composed by Rabbi Naftali for the purpose of educating children and for adults, who in difficult circumstances, do not have the time to recite the full version of birchas hamazon.

Who were the other contributors to Birchas Hamazon?

Rabbi Nosson Nota Shapira of Hrodna

After studying in Lublin under Rabbi Shalom Shachna, Rabbi Nosson Nota (ben Rabbi Shimshon) Shapira succeeded Rabbi Mordechia Yaffe (author of Sefer Levushim) as rosh yeshiva and av beis din in Hrodna (Grodno), Lithuania. He later moved to Posen (Poznan) where he served as chief rabbi of Poland. He authored Mevo Shearim on Sha’arei Dura by Rabbi Yitzchak of Düren. His grandson was the preeminent Rabbi Nosson Nota Shapira of Krakow, author of Megaleh Amukos.

Rabbi Shabsi Sofer of Przemyśl

Rabbi Shabsi Sofer of Przemyśl was a student of Rabbi Mordechia Yaffe and is prominently known for his siddur which he published at the behest of the rabbinic leaders of the Va’ad Arbah Aratzos (The Council of the Four Lands). Rabbi Shabsi siddur earned the haskamos of many great Polish rabbis and roshei yeshiva including Rabbi Shmuel Eidels (Maharsha), Rabbi Yoel Sirkis (Bach), and Rabbi Yehoshua Falk Katz (Sema).

Growing up in Amsterdam

Rabbi Moshe Zacuto was born around 1610 in Amsterdam. His father, Mordechai, was a Converso Jew who originated from Portugal and was a descendant of the renowned astronomer and historian, Rabbi Avraham Zacuto (author of the historical work - Sefer Yuchsin). In his youth, Rabbi Moshe Zacuto studied in the famed Eitz Chayim yeshiva in Amsterdam, established by Rabbi Shaul Levi Morteira (1596-1660). Rabbi Morteira, an Italian rabbi from Venice, also served as rabbi of the Portuguese Beis Yakov community in Amsterdam.

Torah education in the Eitz Chayim yeshiva in the early 1600s was broad in nature; in addition to Tanach, Mishnah, and Gemara, it also included the study of the Hebrew language, included grammar and poetry. In these early years, Rabbi Zacuto developed a strong appreciation for the Hebrew language which would later express itself in the many poems that he wrote.

Studying Kabbalah in Poland

After his family moved to Hamburg, Rabbi Moshe Zacuto left that city and travelled to Posen (today Poznań, Poland), where he studied Kabbalah with Rabbis Elchanan and Yitzchak. Rabbi Yitzchak of Posen was one of the students of Rabbi Shabsi Sheftel Halevi, the son of Rabbi Yeshayah Halevi Horowitz, author of Shnei Lucḥos ha-Bris.

Rabbi in Venice

After studying in Poland, Rabbi Zacuto planned to move to Eretz Yisrael, but on his way through Italy he was informed that the elderly sage Rabbi Azaryah Piccio (author of the two prominent sefarim: Binah Le-Ittim and Gedulei Terumah) was searching for someone to replace him as rabbi of Venice. Rabbi Zacuto agreed and spent the next 28 years (1645-1673) as rabbi in Venice. There, he established a yeshiva which attracted students from faraway lands.

Rabbi in Mantua

One of Rabbi Zacuto’s most prominent students, Rabbi Binyamin ha-Kohen of Reggio, known by the acronym Rabach - רב״ך) was instrumental in bringing his master to the city of Mantua. (Rabbi Binyamin ha-Kohen of Reggio was the father-in-law of two prominent Italian rabbis, Rabbi Yeshayahu Bassan and Rabbi Menashe of Padua). Rabbi Zacuto remained in Mantua for twenty five years where he served as rabbi and rosh yeshiva until his passing on the second day of Succos, 1697.

Writing and Publishing Sefarim

Rabbi Moshe Zacuto authored and oversaw the publishing of a number of major sefarim. In addition to more than a dozen works on the subject of Kabbalah, Rabbi Zacuto authored:

• A commentary on the Talmud Yerushalmi

• A commentary on the Mishnah titled Kol ha-Ramaz

• Shuda D’dayni, regulations regarding monetary law

• Hein Kol Chadash, a collection of songs and poems

• A collection of responsa and letters

Rabbi Dovid Pardo was born in Venice in 1718 to a prominent rabbinic family. Sadly, his parents passed away when he was a young boy and Rabbi Yakov Belilius, a prominent member of the rabbinic court in Venice undertook the responsibility of raising and educating the young scholar. Later in life, in his introduction to Shoshanim le-Dovid, Rabbi Dovid Pardo would reflect fondly upon the years that Rabbi Belilius raised him like a father and taught him Torah.

Spalato, Croatia

Rabbi Dovid Pardo’s first rabbinic position was in Spalato (Split), Croatia. There, a young native, Rabbi Shabtai Ventura, became one of Rabbi Pardo’s prized disciples. Rabbi Shabtai Ventura would go on to author Nahar Shalom, an important commentary on the Orach Chayim section Shulchan Aruch. When Rabbi Pardo departed Spalato for Sarajevo, Rabbi Shabtai Ventura replaced him as rabbi.

Sarajevo, Bosnia

Like other small Jewish communities in the Balkans that were originally established by emigrants from Salonica, the Jewish community of Sarajevo looked toward Salonica for religious guidance and instruction. However, Rabbi Dovid Pardo’s arrival in Sarajevo (around 1763) transformed the city into an independent center of Jewish learning that attracted great Torah scholars.

The Holy Land

In Elul of 1781 after nearly 17 years in the rabbinate, the representatives of the Jewish community of Sarajevo decided to honor Rabbi Dovid Pardo’s request that the community should give him a pension, enabling him to emigrate to the Holy Land. A pension was to be paid from the community tax fund on condition that Rabbi Pardo does not accept any rabbinic position in any other community, and that he dedicates a part of his learning to the merit of the Jewish community of Sarajevo.

Rabbi Pardo settled in Yerushalayim where he was appointed rosh yeshiva of Chesed le-Avraham and spent the last decade of his life until his passing in 1792. His second son, Rabbi Yitzchak, remained in Sarajevo where he occupied his father’s post as rabbi until 1810. His eldest son, Rabbi Yakov, authored a number of sefarim including Kehillas Yakov on Neveim Rishonim and Miskanos Yakov on Sefer Yeshayah; his youngest son, Avraham, moved to the Holy Land with his father and where he married a daughter of the Chida.

A Prolific Author

A prolific author, Rabbi Dovid Pardo wrote the following sefarim:

• Shoshanim le-Dovid, a commentary on the Mishnah

• Chasdei Dovid, a fundamental and foundational commentary on the Tosefta. In this work he corrected many mistakes that crept into the text over the years.

• Sifri D’bei Rav, a commentary on the Sifri

• Maskil le-Dovid, a commentary on Rashi on Chumash

• Lamnatzeiach le-Dovid, a three-part work on intricate Talmudic subjects.

• Michtam le-Dovid, a collection of responsa

• Mizmor le-Dovid, a commentary on the Yoreh Deyah section of Shulchan Aruch. In this work Rabbi Pardo defends Rabbi Chizkiyah da Silva’s Pri Chadash against the critiques of Rabbi Chaim ibn Attar’s Pri Toar.

• In addition to the above, Rabbi Pardo wrote a large number of liturgical poems and tefillos

  

  Here are some additional images courtesy of the Klau Library, Cincinnati, HUC-JIR:

  

  

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From his youth Rabbi Shabsi Bass possessed a deep love for Hebrew books and sefarim. In 1669, after observing that many of the youth in Prague were advancing to the study of Talmud without a clear knowledge of Chumash and the Hebrew language, Rabbi Bass reprinted Be’er Moshe, a Yiddish commentary on the Chumash and added his own introduction containing a brief overview of the rules of Hebrew grammar. Sometime later, when he moved to Amsterdam and visited the yeshivos there, he praised the Sephardic youth whose proficiency in Tanach and Hebrew grammar astounded him. In his introduction to Sifsei Yeshanim he provides a detailed description of the Sephardic yeshiva system which he encountered in Amsterdam and bemoans the fact that the Ashkenazic Jews don’t implement such a system.

Sifsei Chachamim

After several years Rabbi Shabsi Bass left Prague and travelled through Poland, Germany, and Holland visiting the major cities in these countries. During his travels he visited private and communal libraries and took note of the Hebrew books and manuscripts that he saw. This list eventually became his bibliography of Hebrew books titled Sifsei Yeshanim, see below.

Rabbi Bass eventually settled in Amsterdam where he began printing his own sefarim. In 1680 he printed his famed Sifsei Chachamim, a synopsis of the various super commentaries on Rashi’s commentary on the Chumash. This work became exceedingly popular and is printed in many editions of the Chumash. An abridged version, Ikkar Sifsei Chachamim has also been published.

Sifsei Yeshanim

In contrast to Sifsei Chachamim which was not an original work but a collection of commentaries, Sifsei Yeshanim, is unique and foundational in nature. In the first bibliography of Hebrew books, Rabbi Shabsi Bass lists more than 2,200 Hebrew books and manuscripts; under each title he includes the authors name, the year and place of publication, and a brief description of the book’s content. Sifsei Yeshanim was translated into both Latin and German, indicating its great popularity.

Derech Eretz

Rabbi Shabsi Bass wrote a unique work in Yiddish called Meseches Derech Eretz. This work, which is about travel and is written for Jewish merchants and travelers, is comprised of three sections: 1) Derech Tzadikim - a collection of tefillos for travelers, 2) Derech ha-Tagarim - measurements, weights, and currencies of the various European countries, 3) Derech ha-Melech - roads between major European cities.

The Hebrew Printing House in Dyhernfurth

In 1689, Rabbi Bass left Amsterdam with the desire to establish his own printing press. He eventually received permission to open a printing house in a town near Breslau (Wroclaw) called Dyhernfurth (Brzeg Dolny), in southwest Poland . At the time there wasn’t yet a Jewish community in Dyhernfurth, it was Rabbi Bass and his colleagues who established a shul and other Jewish organizations there. In Dyhernfurth, Rabbi Bass published nearly 80 titles; the first sefer he printed (in 1689) was Rabbi Shmuel be Shraga Feivush’s commentary on Shulchan Aruch Even ha-Ezer titled Beis Shmuel. Rabbi Shabsi’s son, Yosef, managed the press after his father’s death in 1718; the press remained in operation until 1762.

Rabbi Shabsi Bass’ passion for publishing and selling Hebrew books was remarkable and his career was marked by success and achievement. However, he encountered several setbacks during his printing career: In 1708 a fire destroyed part of his printing house and on another occasion, in 1712, Rabbi Bass was accused of printing blasphemous content. He was arrested and imprisoned for ten weeks until he was able to prove his innocence. Rabbi Shabsi Bass died in 1718 in Breslau and is buried in nearby Krotoszyn.

A curious observation relating to Chanukah is the fact that the laws of Chanukah are interspersed throughout the Talmud instead of being organized into their own mesechta (tractate) of Mishnah like the rest of the Jewish holidays.

Over the centuries, several explanations have been offered:

• In his introduction to Rav Poalim, Rabbi Avraham, son of the Vilna Gaon, reports in the name of his father that among the mesechtos ketanos (minor tractates) was meseches Chanukah. Apparently, over time this mesechta got lost since we do not have it today. Accordingly, although it was never part of the Mishnah in a formal sense, the laws of Chanukah were collected and arranged into a mesechta ketanah. Regarding the status of the mesechtos ketanos as part of the Oral Law, see Midrash Rabbah, Vayikrah Rabbah (22:1) with Chiddushei Radal.

• In his collection of sermons titled Devarim Achadim (#32, p. 596) the Chida records in the name of Rabbi Yosef ibn Samun that Megillas Ta’anis (a b’raysa which discusses the days on which it is prohibited to fast) predated the compilation of the Mishnah. Since Megillas Ta’anis contains the laws of Chanukah (see ch. 9) and wasn’t yet abolished in the times of Rebbi Yehuda Hanasi, he didn’t see it necessary to include the laws of Chanukah in the Mishnah.

• In his chiddushim on the Gemara (Gittin, 78a), the Chasam Sofer (Rabbi Moshe Sofer, 1762-1839) writes that people were familiar with the laws of Chanukah so there was no need to include them in the Mishnah. The Rambam (commentary to the Mishnah, Menachos 4:1) writes a similar concept with regards to other mitzvos whose laws aren’t addressed in the Mishnah.

• A tradition is recorded in the name of the Chasam Sofer (See Chut Meshulash, Mesorah, 1963, p. 145,) that since Rebbi Yehudah Hanasi was a descendant of the Davidic dynasty he did not wish to include the laws of Chanukah in the Mishnah since the heroes of the story, the priestly Chashmonai family, unrightfully established themselves as Jewish kings (see Ramban, Bereishis, 49:10). Even if there is truth to this legend, it must be clarified that the saintly Rebbi Yehudah Hanasi did not, heaven forbid, act out of resentment toward the Chashmonaim, but rather did so l’sheim shamayim - for the sake of heaven. Since the Chashmonaim acted improperly by taking the kingship, it was the Divine will that the laws of Chanukah be omitted from the Mishnah.

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• In his Sefas Emes (Chanukah, 5644), Rabbi Yehudah Leib Alter, the Gerrer Rebbe (1847-1905) writes that the essence of Chanukah and the miracles which it celebrates is the Torah sh’bal Peh, the Oral Law. As such, Rebbi Yehudah Hanasi did not incorporate the laws of Chanukah into his written text of the Mishnah. In his Pachad Yitzchak on Chanukah (#1) Rabbi Yitzchak Hutner elaborates on this idea and explains the nature of the Chanukah miracle and why Chanukah specifically was largely omitted from the written text of the Mishnah.

• In his Yesod ha-Mishnah v’Arichasah (second edition, pp. 24-26), Rabbi Reuven Margolis suggests that it was political constraints that prevented Rabbi Yehudah Hanasi from including Chanukah (and other topics) in the Mishnah.

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